Introduction:
I had studied work of Immanuel Kant in past, as his work in reasoning towards god was basically against atheism. So I thought that I should write an article for you guys on it.
Arguing with Reason:
Kant's philosophy explores the power and limits of reason, focusing on two key questions:
- Theoretical Reason – Can reason provide knowledge beyond the physical world? Kant argues that reason has strict limits and cannot give us direct knowledge of God or metaphysical truths.
- Practical Reason – Can reason guide moral actions? Kant challenges empiricists like Hume, asserting that reason enables us to act on universal moral principles, revealing human freedom.
His major works, Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788), explore these ideas separately. The connection between theoretical and practical reason will be our topic of discussion in this short article.
Theoretical Reason: Its Limits
Kant argues that reasoning has strict limits, particularly against rationalist metaphysics, which tries to extend knowledge beyond our sensory experiences. He believes that reason cannot provide us with knowledge of God or the ultimate nature of reality because doing so leads to contradictions (for instance, reason might simultaneously argue for and against the existence of God).
In contrast to empiricism, which views motivation and morality as derived from experience, Kant claims that reason is necessary for moral action. It allows us to act according to laws that can be universally shared among rational beings, hence explaining human freedom within the boundaries of knowledge.
Structure of Kant's Argument
This discussion Kant structured as follows:
- Theoretical Reason: Kant's view on knowledge and metaphysics is primarily explored in his "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781, 1787), where he discusses limits on what we can know.
- Practical Reason: His moral philosophy is analyzed in the "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), highlighting the role of reason in forming moral principles.
- Relationship Between Theoretical and Practical Reason: The final section discusses how the above aspects of reason connect. Onora O'Neill explains that Kant emphasizes practical reason to construct moral principles that are universal and shareable among rational beings. She finds Kant's philosophy as a constructivist approach to reason and morality, which prioritizes obligations over rights, linking justice and virtue.
Theoretical Reason: Its Cognitive Role and Limitations
In Critique of Pure Reason, Kant tells us how we gain knowledge through sensibility (our senses) and understanding (our ability to think). He argues that substantial knowledge (i.e., sound understanding of the world) emerges from our sensory experiences combined with our concepts. However, Kant also placed some restrictions on philosophical reasoning, especially when it tries to explain things beyond the physical world (what he calls "transcendent" knowledge). He says that such attempts lead to illusions, referring to this problematic reasoning as "Dialectic" (which is reason supporting two opposite opinions).
Note: Dialectic is a form of reasoning or argument that involves dialogue between opposing ideas to arrive at the truth (for Kant it's useless for metaphysics). E.g.: Plato & Socrates' discussion.
Hence Kant aims to show that while reason has limits, it also plays key roles in our pursuit of knowledge. He proves that by: 1) Reason leading to unity in understanding. 2) It helps in showing errors in an argument.
Reason and Empirical Truth
He argues that reason helps us seek unity in our understanding, which is necessary for coherent judgments about reality. Without this guiding principle, our knowledge would lack structure. For instance, we make judgments about our experiences (like recognizing a hand in front of us), but only through understanding do we evaluate if our beliefs are true rather than mistaken.
Understanding Errors
Kant posits that while our senses can provide us with raw information, it's only through understanding that we can judge the truth of that information. Errors occur only when we confuse our subjective perceptions (like dreams) with objective reality.
Practical Application of Reason
When faced with doubts about our beliefs (e.g., whether we won a lottery), we should analyze how those beliefs connect with our other knowledge and the judgments of others, using reason to determine their coherence with reality (if we want to check if we won the lottery, reason forces us to look for the result - the result from this act is called "Judgment").
In summary, Kant emphasizes that reason is fundamental to organizing our experiences and discerning truth, but it is also essential to recognize its limitations.
Islamic Perspective on Limitations of Reason:
In Islam, the role of reason is similar to Kant's. We use reason to understand the world and our reality. Islam recognizes that while human reason is limited and cannot fully comprehend the divine or the transcendent (similar to Kant's ideas), it is still crucial for seeking truth and living a moral life. Hence we use reason to explore reality, reflect on our beliefs, and make ethical choices as with issues of jurisprudence (Fiqh).
Reason in Science
In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant discusses the role of reason in science and how it operates within the pursuit of knowledge. He argues that scientific judgments require a unifying principle known as "transcendental ideas," which are concepts that come from pure reason and are not solely based on sensory experience (i.e., what we perceive).
For Kant, Science is used to Understand and Apply:
- Universal Laws: Science aims to uncover universal laws governing natural phenomena. This means reason helps connect individual experiences through overarching principles rather than just isolated observations.
- Errors and Contradictions: Kant points out that assuming knowledge about things beyond sensory experience, like God or the soul, can lead to contradictions. For example, we can argue both for and against whether the universe has a beginning, which he calls "antinomies."
- Integration of Knowledge: Scientific inquiry assumes that all events are systematically related by causal laws. For example, Copernicus's heliocentric theory challenged common perceptions, but advancements like Galileo's observations and Newton's laws provided a unified understanding of celestial motion.
- Regulative vs. Constitutive Principles: Kant distinguishes between "constitutive" principles (which shape our knowledge, like causation) and "regulative" principles (which guide our scientific inquiries but don't guarantee specific findings). While science should strive for a comprehensive understanding, it cannot know in advance if nature behaves entirely according to universal laws as we have been able to appreciate normally.
Islamic Perspective
From an Islamic viewpoint, reason also plays a crucial role in science and the pursuit of knowledge, especially when it comes to the health of a person. Islamic philosophy, which in the true sense does not include theology (or in other words, excludes the study of God with reason - as we already have the Qur'an for understanding our Creator), encourages the use of reason to understand the natural world, study its laws, and seek universal truths about creation (i.e., to confirm His presence through signs He has shown in this world and in His holy book, the Qur'an).
Islamic teachings emphasize that reason is a gift from God, and it should be employed to explore both the physical universe and spiritual matters in understanding what makes sense with revelation and not going beyond that.
Moreover, Islam respects the limitations of human understanding, similar to Kant's recognition that reason has constraints. But we are commanded to be in continuous pursuit of knowledge while acknowledging the need for humility and our limitations and not to be too proud of our developments.
The Limits of Reason
Kant says (or I can tell that he sincerely felt) that reason has significant limitations, especially when it comes to metaphysical claims like the existence of God or the nature of the soul. He demonstrates that it's equally possible to argue both for and against various metaphysical concepts, leading to contradictions known as "antinomies." For example, we can argue that the universe must be either bounded or unbounded, which reflects the inherent conflicts in our reasoning.
These contradictions expose the boundaries of what reason can truly know. Many philosophers have mistakenly claimed knowledge about things beyond empirical experience, causing skepticism about the reliability of reason itself. Kant aims to clear this confusion by saying that while reason has its limits, it is still a valuable tool for certain types of knowledge.
Kant uses the biblical story of Babel to illustrate the chaos that can arise when people engage in metaphysical discussions without a shared understanding (this story of the Tower of Babel is a fake narration in the Bible).
Another story of Babylon is narrated in the Qur'an in Surah Al-Baqarah Ayat 102 as,
"And they followed [instead] what the devils had recited during the reign of Solomon. It was not Solomon who disbelieved, but the devils disbelieved, teaching people magic and that which was revealed to the two angels at Babylon, Harut and Marut. But the two angels do not teach anyone unless they say, 'We are a trial, so do not disbelieve [by practicing magic].' And [yet] they learn from them that by which they cause separation between a man and his wife. But they do not harm anyone through it except by permission of Allah. And the people learn what harms them and does not benefit them. But the Children of Israel certainly knew that whoever purchased the magic would not have in the Hereafter any share. And wretched is that for which they sold themselves, if they only knew."
Here Allah is stating that those who take things in irrational ways just because the reason in their minds has not allowed them to think of the evilness of their deeds are deemed to be surrounded by those same evil acts. Such people lacking common ground (as everyone imposes his rationality) may end up in conflict or under authoritarian control.
Importantly, Kant notes that we cannot have certain knowledge about transcendent entities like God or the soul through reason alone. However, he points out that this limitation leads to the possibility of faith. He emphasizes that knowledge is not the ultimate purpose of reason; rather, rationality answers crucial questions which are: what can we know, what must we do (in terms of common morality), and what can we hope for through the understanding Allah has given us.
Kant believes that reason should acknowledge its own limits to function effectively. This self-awareness allows us to use reason validly and avoid falling into the trap of making unfounded metaphysical claims. Ultimately, he sees reason as self-reflective, and to appreciate its beauty one must understand how it operates within its boundaries.
Islamic Perspective
In Islamic thought, reason is similarly regarded as a powerful tool but is also recognized to have its limitations, especially regarding metaphysical beliefs. Islamic scholars acknowledge that while reason can lead to understanding God and the universe, it has boundaries that humans cannot transcend.
As for the atheists who neglect God due to the half-blindness they show when it comes to recognizing signs in the Words and Works of Allah, He (SWT) says,
"Have you seen ˹O Prophet˺ those who have taken their own desires as their god? ˹And so˺ Allah left them to stray knowingly, sealed their hearing and hearts." (Qur'an 45:23)
Reason's Self-Knowledge
In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant argues that metaphysics has not progressed and proclaims that his work puts it on a more scientific path. He questions the relationship between philosophy and fields like mathematics and science, which can achieve certainty.
Mathematics vs. Philosophy
Kant asserts that while mathematics can utilize pure intuitions (like geometric shapes), philosophy cannot rely on such intuitions regarding metaphysical entities. Attempts to do so result in flawed reasoning—what he refers to as "houses of cards."
Empirical Science
He also contends that the empirical sciences cannot model metaphysics. Experience cannot reveal metaphysical truths, such as the concept of free will, nor can it establish necessary truths (those that must be the case). Scientific laws have a necessity but require philosophical justification, which cannot be derived purely from empirical investigation.
Philosophical Inquiry
Despite these limitations, Kant uses scientific imagery to describe philosophy, suggesting that reason acts as a "self-appointed judge." Philosophy should actively propose theories and test them against experience, rather than merely observing.
Three Transcendental Ideas
Kant identifies three fundamental ideas in metaphysics, which often lead to errors: the soul, the universe, and God. He argues that attempts to know these concepts result in the same mistakes because they stem from the inherent nature of reason.
Self-Examination of Reason
Kant posits that reason must conduct an "experiment" upon itself to understand its own structure and limitations, similar to how Copernicus revolutionized astronomy by altering the perspective from which we observe celestial objects.
Importance of Perspective
He believes that our knowledge is shaped by our human perspectives and limitations, contrasting with the views of rationalist philosophers who claim more absolute knowledge. Kant critiques the failure to recognize these bounds, leading to conflicting metaphysical assertions.
Reason's Self-Critique
Kant raises the challenge of how reason can critique itself, especially since it has frequently produced flawed metaphysical claims. He highlights the need to discipline reason to defend it against doubt, which is the central task of his critique.
In essence, Kant seeks to clarify reason's powers and limits. By understanding how reason functions and where it can lead us astray, he aims to provide a basis for more reliable philosophical inquiry.
Islamic Perspective
In Islamic thought, self-reflection and self-critique are vital to understanding human reasoning and its limits.
While reason is seen as a powerful tool for understanding the universe and ethical behavior, it is also recognized that human intellect has limitations, particularly concerning metaphysical matters. Islamic philosophy often stresses the importance of humility in the face of divine knowledge. Knowledge beyond sensory experience (like the nature of God or the afterlife) is understood to come through revelation, which complements reason rather than competes with it.
Therefore, just as Kant promotes self-critique of reason, Islam has always made humans appreciate and reason - not only that, Allah has promised that,
"We will show them Our signs in the universe and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that this ˹Quran˺ is the truth." (Qur'an 41:53)
So for a true intellectual, reason never puts him/her in confusion unless he/she makes this reason into a blind religion, i.e., atheism.
Stay-Safe, Be-Curious. Allah-Hafiz!